Epidemiological research—the study of the distribution and determinants of disease in populations—relies on knowledge of different data sources, solid study designs and the accurate ...

These examples include randomized registry trials, cluster-randomized trials, adaptive trials, and trials that are fully embedded within digital clinical care or administrative platforms.

Suppose that a cohort of individuals is to be followed in order to relate failure rates to preceding covariate histories. A design is proposed which involves covariate data only for cases experiencing ...

Kujala emphasises how epidemiological study designs are vulnerable to limitations that may skew or distort observational associations and impede the distinction between correlation and causation.